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The use of financial instruments to manage risks has been well known in commodity industries for decades. Gas and electric market...
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In ISO markets, market participants sometimes incur congestion costs that are in excess of the standard transmission rates. These...
Firm service is the highest priority utility, gas pipeline, gas storage, electric transmission, gas purchase, or electric purchase level...
A fixed cost remains basically constant regardless of the level of output or operation in a company over a short period of time (one to a...
With the growth in renewable resources, short-term supply variability has increased. To address this issue some ISOs have introduced a...
In an AC system, frequency is the rate at which the electron flow changes direction. Frequency is measured in hertz, abbreviated as Hz,...
Also called automatic generation control (AGC), frequency regulation is used to manage the second-by-second fluctuations in the system...
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Frequency response is the ability of a bulk electric system, or elements of that system, to react or respond to a change in system...
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts a fuel's chemical energy directly into electricity. Fuel cells have no moving...
The electric grid is rapidly transforming from a one-way system delivering power from centralized generation to consumers to a two-way...
Gas combustion turbines allow a form of power generation where natural gas is directly used to fire a turbine that drives the generator...
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One of the most important regulatory proceedings for a utility is the general rate case or GRC. It is in this proceeding that rates and...
Sunspots, solar flares, or other phenomena can produce large clouds of plasma and magnetic fields that erupt from the corona of the sun....
Geothermal power is created by the conversion of thermal energy in the earth to energy in the form of electricity. There are various...
Geothermal resources are used as a source of hot water or steam for geothermal power plants. There are three sources of geothermal heat...
Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases (GHGs). The trapping of heat is called the greenhouse effect. A...
A majority of electrical systems are grounded (connected to the earth) for economic, reliability, and safety reasons. Although alternate...
A heat pump is a device that draws heat or cooling from the air or ground and transfers it into a building. Heat pumps are efficient ways...
The heat rate of a power plant is a quantity that reflects the amount of fuel required to generate one unit of electrical energy. The...
Hedging is a risk management strategy designed to offset potential losses. The reduction in risk has a cost, which may be paid upfront,...
